Deuteronomy Commentary

God first revealed Israel’s national “constitution” to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23). The great leader Moses was now about to die. God had appointed a younger man, Joshua, to replace Moses, but he was not yet fully tested. Israel had been rescued from slavery in Egypt and miraculously preserved through forty years of wandering in the wilderness. The Israelites now stood on the verge of entering the land promised to them, but it was inhabited by powerful and hostile enemies. Although God had been faithful in the past, the future seemed uncertain. Deuteronomy is the account of Israel’s covenant with God renewed—a covenant that would guide Israel to God’s blessings throughout the remainder of their history as a nation.

Setting

Forty years after their exodus from Egypt, the Israelites arrived at the plains of Moab, just across the Jordan River from Jericho. After four decades of wandering, they were poised to cross the Jordan, conquer the Canaanite nations, and settle their land in fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham. First, however, God would renew his covenant with them.

Moses was aware that he would die before leading his people to their destination. So, prior to his death, he needed to remind the people of the terms of the covenant that God had revealed to him. The initial covenant, suitable for Israel while en route to Canaan, had been made thirty-eight years earlier at Sinai (Exod 19–24). Now, in anticipation of Israel’s establishment as a settled community, the original covenant must be restated and enlarged. The book of Deuteronomy is this restatement.

Summary

Deuteronomy is Moses’ farewell address to the tribes of Israel. The book includes narratives, exhortations, warnings, instructions, and promises of blessings or curses in relation to Israel’s faithfulness. Deuteronomy is composed as a treaty text, using elements common to covenants between nations. It is similar to other treaties known from ancient Near Eastern sources, particularly from Hittite archives. Moses thus communicates God’s purposes to Israel in a familiar literary and legal form.

The formal structures of Deuteronomy yield a great deal of insight into the theological nature of the book. As a covenant text, it underscores the seriousness of God’s promises and of Israel’s need (as the covenant partner) to obey the terms of the treaty so that God can fulfill his promises. As a farewell speech, it is rooted in a historical and geographical setting.

The following outline reflects the analysis of Deuteronomy as a covenant document:

1:1-5 Preamble to the covenant

1:6–4:49 Historical prologue

5:1–26:15 Stipulations of the covenant

26:16–29:1 Blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience

29:2–30:20 Review of the covenant and choice between life and death

31:1-29 Deposit of the text of the covenant

31:30–32:43 Witnesses of the covenant

The outline embedded in the Bible text reflects Deuteronomy’s structure both as a covenant text and as a farewell speech communicated in a series of sermons.

Authorship

Long-standing Jewish and Christian tradition holds that Moses wrote Deuteronomy. Both the Old Testament and New Testament acknowledge Moses’ authorship of the book (see 1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Kgs 14:6; 2 Chr 25:4; Ezra 3:2; Matt 19:7; Mark 12:19; Luke 20:28; Acts 3:22-23; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9).

However, during the past two hundred years, critical scholars have denied that Moses wrote Deuteronomy. Some scholars identify Deuteronomy as the scroll found in the Temple in King Josiah’s time (around 621 BC; see 2 Kgs 22:8-20) and argue that Deuteronomy should be dated in close proximity to that time. Some also attribute editorial additions as late as the period following the Exile (538 BC and later).

Archaeologists have discovered Hittite treaty texts originating in the Late Bronze Age (1500–1200 BC), around the time of Moses. These texts, which contain a number of similarities to Deuteronomy, provide support for an early authorship of the book. Some scholars compare Deuteronomy to seventh-century Assyrian treaty texts that are closer to Josiah’s time. However, the Hittite texts are more similar to Deuteronomy in structure and content than the Assyrian examples, making it less likely that Deuteronomy was written during the later period.

In short, the traditional viewpoint that Moses authored the majority of the book is a reasonable conclusion. Certain editorial additions were included later (e.g., the account of Moses’ death; 34:5-12). See further Genesis Book Introduction, “Authorship.”

Literary Form

Deuteronomy’s structure resembles other treaty texts drawn up between various nations in the period of the Exodus and the conquest. Some of these were treaties between equals, while others were suzerain-vassal treaties. In a suzerain-vassal treaty, the superior party (the suzerain, or “great king”) would make demands of and offer promises to subject peoples (the vassals) in return for their unqualified obedience.

Deuteronomy is a suzerain-vassal treaty between God and Israel. God called the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to be his servant people. He took the lead in the relationship, determined the terms for maintaining the treaty, and offered promises of blessing if Israel obeyed and judgment if the nation disobeyed.

Moses’ use of the suzerain-vassal treaty format makes it clear that Deuteronomy is a covenant text. God chose Israel to be his special people. It was not the covenant that made them so, for they were already identified as God’s people before the Exodus (Exod 4:22-23). Rather, the text of the covenant regulated their behavior. By reviewing the covenant with this generation of Israelites, Moses ensured that they would enter the Promised Land as God’s covenant people.

Meaning and Message

The covenant is the leading theme of Deuteronomy—and perhaps of the entire Old Testament. The covenant provided the means for the Lord to unite himself to Israel. The covenant stated that the Lord was Israel’s God, Israel was God’s people, and the relationship between them would achieve God’s redemptive purposes. This awesome privilege also included profound responsibility. Could Israel conduct itself in a manner that would guarantee the success of its mission? What standards of behavior would enable them to fulfill their calling?

Israel had the freedom to accept or reject God’s covenant (Exod 19:7-8). Once they accepted it, the distribution of blessings and curses, as outlined within the covenant, depended on whether they obeyed or disobeyed (28:1-6, 15-19). Yet even disobedience could be overcome if the nation would repent, return, and be restored to covenant fellowship (30:1-10; see also Lev 26:40-45).

This covenant did not make Israel God’s people; God’s promise of a national offspring to Abraham had already done that (Gen 17:1-8). The covenant made at Sinai gave Israel the privilege of serving the Lord as a kingdom of priests (Exod 19:4-6). Deuteronomy reiterates the terms and conditions of that covenant: If Israel could remain faithful in its role as a “kingdom of priests and [God’s] holy nation,” it would direct God’s blessings to the whole world.

The Israelites were the unique people of God. God made promises to the nation’s forefathers that he fulfilled in the Exodus and in creating the nation. He was ready to solidify Israel in the conquest of the Promised Land and move the nation forward until his purposes were complete. The book of Deuteronomy established the principles of faithful life and ministry that would ensure Israel’s ongoing relationship with God in achieving those objectives. Israel had the indescribable honor of partnering with Almighty God to bring about his plan for the ages.

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Fifth Book of Moses, Called Deuteronomy

This book is a repetition of very much both of the history and of the laws contained in the three foregoing books, which repetition Moses delivered to Israel (both by word of mouth, that it might affect, and by writing, that it might abide) a little before his death. There is no new history in it but that of the death of Moses in the last chapter, nor any new revelation to Moses, for aught that appears, and therefore the style here is not, as before, The Lord spoke unto Moses, saying. But the former laws are repeated and commented upon, explained and enlarged, and some particular precepts added to them, with copius reasonings for the enforcing of them: in this Moses was divinely inspired and assisted, so that this is as truly the word of the Lord by Moses as that which was spoken to him with an audible voice out of the tabernacle of the congregation, Lev 1:1. The Greek interpreters call it Deuteronomy, which signifies the second law, or a second edition of the law, not with amendments, for there needed none, but with additions, for the further direction of the people in divers cases not mentioned before. Now, I. It was much for the honour of the divine law that it should be thus repeated; how great were the things of that law which was thus inculcated, and how inexcusable would those be by whom they were counted as a strange thing! Hos 8:12. II. There might be a particular reason for the repeating of it now; the men of that generation to which the law was first given were all dead, and a new generation had sprung up, to whom God would have it repeated by Moses himself, that, if possible, it might make a lasting impression upon them. Now that they were just going to take possession of the land of Canaan, Moses must read the articles of agreement to them, that they might know upon what terms and conditions they were to hold and enjoy that land, and might understand that they were upon their good behaviour in it. III. It would be of great use to the people to have those parts of the law thus gathered up and put together which did more immediately concern them and their practice; for the laws which concerned the priests and Levites, and the execution of their offices, are not repeated: it was enough for them that they were once delivered. But, in compassion to the infirmities of the people, the laws of more common concern are delivered a second time. Precept must be upon precept, and line upon line, Isa 28:10. The great and needful truths of the gospel should be often pressed upon people by the ministers of Christ. To write the same things (says Paul, Phi 3:1) to me indeed is not grievous, but for you it is safe. What God has spoken once we have need to hear twice, to hear many times, and it is well if, after all, it be duly perceived and regarded. In three ways this book of Deuteronomy was magnified and made honourable: - 1. The king was to write a copy of it with his own hand, and to read therein all the days of his life, ch. 17, 18, 19. 2. It was to be written upon great stones plastered, at their passing over Jordan, Deu 27:2, Deu 27:3. 3. It was to be read publicly every seventh year, at the feast of tabernacles, by the priests, in the audience of all Israel, Deu 31:9, etc. The gospel is a kind of Deuteronomy, a second law, a remedial law, a spiritual law, a law of faith; by it we are under the law of Christ, and it is a law that makes the comers thereunto perfect.

This book of Deuteronomy begins with a brief rehearsal of the most remarkable events that had befallen the Israelites since they came from Mount Sinai. In the fourth chapter we have a most pathetic exhortation to obedience. In the twelfth chapter, and so on to the twenty-seventh, are repeated many particular laws, which are enforced (ch. 27 and 28) with promises and threatenings, blessings and curses, formed into a covenant, ch. 29 and 30. Care is taken to perpetuate the remembrance of these things among them (ch. 31), particularly by a song (ch. 32), and so Moses concludes with a blessing, ch. 33. All this was delivered by Moses to Israel in the last month of his life. The whole book contains the history but of two months; compare Deu 1:3 with Jos 4:19, the latter of which was the thirty days of Israel's mourning for Moses; see how busy that great and good man was to do good when he knew that his time was short, how quick his motion when he drew near his rest. Thus we have more recorded of what our blessed Saviour said and did in the last week of his life than in any other. The last words of eminent persons make or should make deep impressions. Observe, for the honour of this book, that when our Saviour would answer the devil's temptations with, It is written, he fetched all his quotations out of this book, Mat 4:4, Mat 4:7, Mat 4:10.

DEUTERONOMY, the second law, a title which plainly shows what is the object of this book, namely, a recapitulation of the law. It was given in the form of public addresses to the people; and as Moses spoke in the prospect of his speedy removal, he enforced obedience to it by many forcible appeals to the Israelites, concerning their long and varied experience both of the mercies and the judgments of God. The minute notices of the heathen people with whom they had come in contact, but who afterward disappeared from the pages of history, as well as the accounts of the fertility and products of Canaan, and the counsels respecting the conquest of that country, fix the date of this book and the time of its composition by the hand of Moses. The close, however, must have been added by another; and, indeed, it is supposed by some to have formed the original preface to the Book of Joshua.

Next: Deuteronomy Chapter 1