Psalms Commentary

Jesus and the apostles loved the book of Psalms—they quoted from it and lived out of it. These ancient prayers and praises of Israel provide a bridge between the Old Testament and the New Testament; the themes introduced in the psalms find further development in the New Testament. Where David’s dynasty failed, Jesus gives hope. Yet, certain expectations that emerge in the book of Psalms still remain for the future, namely that God’s people will completely fulfill his purposes and that all nations will submit to the Messiah.

Summary

The psalms, like all Scripture, are inspired and given by God (see 2 Tim 3:16). Yet each psalm originated with a human author as a prayer or praise to the Lord. The psalms are diverse: The Psalter includes laments, praise psalms, wisdom, thanksgiving, reflections on God’s actions, celebrations of God’s revelation, and worship.

The first two psalms serve as an introduction to the entire Psalter (the book of Psalms). Psalm 1 describes a godly person who delights in God, lives by divine instruction, and is not influenced by evildoers. Psalm 1 points to three questions: (1) Is there forgiveness for sins? (2) Why do the godly suffer? and (3) Why do the wicked prosper? The rest of the Psalter meditates on these questions.

Psalm 2 speaks of how the nations and the wicked are in rebellion against God’s rule. God judges the rebellious and protects the godly. Psalm 2 suggests two questions: (1) Why do the rebellious nations and the wicked prosper? and (2) Why were the kings of David’s line not victorious?

The psalmists largely wrestle with these questions. Some quietly accept their problems, while others question God or become exasperated. Meanwhile, new questions and issues develop out of their dialogues with God.

The Composition of the Psalms

For a thousand years, poets wrote these poems while people recited and collected them. The Temple liturgy encouraged both the writing and the collection of psalms. Gradually, editors incorporated smaller collections into larger collections, shaping five collections into the one book of Psalms. The process of editing the Psalter into one book took place over time and was completed following the exile to Babylon. There are several markers of this editorial activity:

1. The editors placed Psalms 1 and 2 as an introduction to the whole book of Psalms. Both psalms give idealized portraits: Psalm 1 portrays the ideal godly person who lives by God’s instruction. Psalm 2 portrays the Messiah, the ideal king of Israel. The rest of the Psalter develops and deepens these portraits, while at the same time exploring how neither the people of God nor their king were able to fulfill God’s ideals and bring about the happiness and peace of God’s kingdom.

2. Individual psalms were collected in groups. The editors arranged these groupings of psalms into five collections: Book One (Pss 1–41, with a doxology in 41:13), Book Two (Pss 42–72, with a doxology in 72:19), Book Three (Pss 73–89, with a doxology in 89:52), Book Four (Pss 90–106, with a doxology in 106:48), and Book Five (Pss 107–150, without a doxology).

3. Books One (Pss 1–41) and Two (Pss 42–72) form the first stage of the collection. The shift from David in Book One (Pss 3–32; 34–41) to collections of psalms by various authors in Book Two (the descendants of Korah, Pss 42–49; Asaph, Ps 50; David, Pss 51–65; 68–70; Solomon, Ps 72) reveals a thematic transition from David as the sole model and teacher to other perspectives. At the end of Book Two, the editor comments, “This ends the prayers of David son of Jesse” (72:20). This comment remained in place even when Books Three, Four, and Five (with additional psalms of David) were added to the collection.

4. Book Three (Pss 73–89) shares with Book Two its preference of the name Elohim for God (Pss 42–83) and its diversity of authors (Asaph, Pss 73–83; the descendants of Korah, Pss 84–85; 87–88; David, Ps 86). Psalm 73, which opens Book Three, questions God’s justice and power, thus calling into doubt the magnificent vision of the messianic kingdom outlined in the final psalm of Book Two (Ps 72). This questioning returns in Psalm 89, at the close of Book Three.

5. The psalms of Book Four (Pss 90–106) wrestle with questions raised at the time of the Exile, when it seemed that God’s covenant with David had been dissolved (see Ps 89). In response to this crisis, several psalms encourage individual growth in character and godliness (see Pss 91–92). Most psalms in this collection present God as the true and faithful king whose kingdom extends to every part of creation (Pss 93–100). He still loves his people, the flock of his pasture (Ps 100), but they have to listen to him (Pss 95; 100). God is the source of forgiveness, and his compassion assures his exiled people that he still cares for them. The review of redemption history from creation to the Exile (Pss 104–106) underscores both God’s wisdom and Israel’s folly as a framework for understanding the Exile.

6. The benediction of Psalm 106:48 is also included in 1 Chronicles 16:36 and might indicate that Book Four was completed in the postexilic era (when Chronicles was compiled).

7. Book Five (Pss 107–150) includes a number of smaller collections: the Egyptian Hallel (Pss 113–118); the Torah Psalm (Ps 119); the Great Hallel (Pss 120–136), which includes the Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134); eight psalms of David (Pss 138–145); and five concluding hymns of praise (Pss 146–150). Book Five sets out the thematic progression of affliction, lament, God’s rescue, and praise. The opening psalm (Ps 107) begins this pattern, and its final verse (107:43) points to the importance of wisdom in discerning God’s ways. Psalm 119, the longest psalm, celebrates the wisdom of God and the word of God. The psalms recounting the Lord’s historic care for Israel in the wilderness (Pss 114–118; 135–136) prepare exilic and postexilic Israel to read David’s final prayers (Pss 138–145) in a new light: David looked forward to God’s kingdom (Ps 145). The psalms of praise affirm this hope (Pss 146–150).

8. Additions appear to have been made to already-existing psalms. This may explain the prayer for the restoration of Zion (51:18-19) and for God’s blessing on Jerusalem (69:34-36). Changes in circumstances may have occasioned the addition of new stanzas.

9. The available manuscripts reveal some flexibility in the organization and titles of the psalms. Both the Hebrew and Greek editions of the Psalter contain 150 psalms, but with differing divisions and numbering as well as differences regarding which psalms have titles. The Greek text combines both Psalms 9 and 10 and Psalms 114 and 115 into one psalm each, but it splits both Psalms 116 and 147 into two. Differences between the Hebrew and English numbering are indicated in the notes.

By the time of Jesus, the collected Psalter was well known (see Luke 20:42; Acts 1:20). It was part of the third section of the Hebrew canon, called the Writings (see Luke 24:44).

Authorship

Many of the psalms are associated with David, but not all; in fact, less than half are explicitly connected with him. Others are connected with Asaph (Pss 50; 73–83), the descendants of Korah (Pss 42–49; 84–85; 87), Solomon (Pss 72; 127), Heman (Ps 88), Ethan (Ps 89), and Moses (Ps 90).

Of the 116 psalms with a title, most identify a person who is linked to that psalm. The person named may be the author, but not necessarily. The Hebrew preposition le before the name (often translated “of”) can also mean “for,” “dedicated to,” “concerning,” “to,” or “by.” So, ledawid (often translated “of David”) could be interpreted as “for David,” “dedicated to David,” “concerning David,” or “by David.” While many psalms “of David” may have been written by him, there are several reasons for caution. The titles occasionally have two names, such as David and Jeduthun or Asaph (Pss 39, 62, 77). It is possible that the other individual was the actual author of the psalm. Furthermore, the psalms whose titles connect them with an episode of David’s life (Pss 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142) provide little or no specific connection with those episodes. For example, the title in Psalm 51 connects the psalm with David’s sin and Nathan’s rebuke. The psalm speaks of sin, forgiveness, and a broken spirit, but any specifics of the situation are notoriously absent. In addition, several psalms “of David” seem to assume the existence of the Temple, which was not constructed until after David’s death (see Ps 5:7; 122:title; 138:2). Similarly, the title of Psalm 30 connects David with the dedication of the Temple, and Psalm 69 does not seem to fit with what is known of David’s life. Finally, some textual traditions vary in the mention of David in the heading (e.g., Pss 122, 124). It is possible, therefore, that ledawid should be understood in many cases as meaning “for/dedicated to/concerning David” rather than “by David.” Such psalms evoke his persona as the chief representative of the dynasty without implying that he himself was the author. Still, there are many psalms that could have been authored by David.

Literary Issues

The title Psalms comes from the Greek word psalmos (“song”; see Luke 20:42; 24:44), which translates the Hebrew mizmor, a word frequently found in the titles of individual psalms (e.g., see Ps 3:title, translated “psalm”). The word mizmor is related to a verb meaning “to play a stringed instrument.” The psalms were originally accompanied by instruments and were part of the oral tradition of Israel before they were collected. The Hebrew title of the Psalter is tehillim (“praises”), a word that is related to hallelujah (“praise Yahweh”).

Psalm Titles. The psalm titles, or short superscriptions accompanying most of the psalms, give information such as the author, the type of psalm (e.g., song, prayer), a musical notation, the use of the psalm, a historical context, or a dedication. Much of the information is not well understood, so many scholars do not emphasize the psalm titles in the interpretation of the psalms.

In Hebrew editions, the psalm titles are typically numbered as verse 1. As a result, the verse numbers for many entire psalms differ by one from most English translations.

Interlude (Hebrew Selah). This word is found throughout the book of Psalms. The meaning of the word is uncertain, though it is probably a musical or literary term. In the NLT it is consistently rendered Interlude.

Groupings of the Psalms. The psalms can be grouped in a number of ways:

• By the names they use for God: Yahweh (“the Lord,” Pss 1–41) and Elohim (“God,” Pss 42–72).

• By the names in the titles: David (Pss 3–32; 34:1–41:13, etc.), the descendants of Korah (Pss 42–49; 84:1–85:13; 87:1–88:18), and Asaph (Pss 50, 73-83).

• By genre (see below).

• By the collections of which they are already a part: e.g., the Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134). Other collections were recognized in Jewish tradition, such as the Egyptian Hallel (Pss 113–118) and the hallelujah hymns (Pss 146–150).

• By thematic connections: e.g., God’s kingship (Pss 93–100), or the storyline from creation to the Exile (Pss 104–106).

Genres of the Psalms. The psalm titles often designate the genre of a psalm. The most frequent genre designation in the titles is the Hebrew term mizmor, referring to a song originally accompanied by stringed instruments. Less frequent are the words maskil (meaning “psalm” or “chant”: Pss 32; 42; 44-45; 52-55; 74; 88–89), miktam (“psalm” or “chant”: Pss 16; 56-60), shir (“song”: Pss 45; 120-135), shiggayon (“psalm,” a generic or musical term: Ps 7), tepillah (“prayer”: Pss 17; 86; 90), tehillah (“psalm of praise”: Ps 145), higgayon (“meditation,” meaning unknown: Ps 9:16), and todah (“psalm of thanksgiving”: Ps 100).

In addition to the genre identifications that are found in the Hebrew text, the psalms may be divided into three main categories:

1. Wisdom or instructional psalms (Pss 1, 15, 24, 33, 34, 37, 73, 90, 107)

2. Psalms of lament (most psalms in books 1—3), which can be subdivided into individual laments and community laments

3. Hymns of praise or thanksgiving (Pss 8, 19, 29, 65, 67, 114), which can similarly be divided into individual and community hymns

The psalms of praise include several subgenres, including “royal” psalms about the king (Pss 2, 45, 72, 89, 110); psalms ascribing kingship to the Lord (Pss 93, 95-99); hymns about creation (Pss 19, 29, 104); and hymns about Zion (Pss 46, 48, 84, 87).

Another way of reading the psalms is based on the movement in many psalms from instruction to a problem and from a problem to a renewal in commitment and character. The Psalter as a collection of five books is largely instructional in nature. It is “instruction” (torah; see 1:2) and has the purpose of teaching God’s people how to live.

The Psalms in Israel’s Worship

The book of Psalms contains much information on music making in ancient Israel. The majority of psalms are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. Some of the psalms were used on specific occasions, such as at Passover (Pss 113–118, or when journeying to Jerusalem for the annual festivals (Pss 120–134. There are also historic odes that relate great national events (for example, Ps 30, “a song for the dedication of the Temple,” and Ps 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity). Such psalms played a role in the life of the community; however, the exact nature of that role is uncertain.

Meaning and Message

The psalms provide windows into the souls of the ancient saints who wrote them. Their theological reflections are not easy or simple-minded, but the psalmists’ faith, when tried, is purified.

The psalms model depth of character, wisdom, honesty, and authenticity. But the prayers in the Psalter are more than models to be imitated. They are God’s instructions for righteous living, part of his torah (“instruction”; see Pss 1; 19; 119). God teaches who he is, what he has done, and what he expects from his people. The psalms are God-centered, instructing his people to discern error in themselves, to receive his correction, and to be like him. They also encourage God’s people to worship him vibrantly and to bear witness about him to the world.

The psalmists reflected on the transitory nature of life, on suffering, and on the many kinds of adversity that human beings experience. As the psalmists faced alienation and pain, they longed for God’s presence, provision, and protection (e.g., Ps 23), and for a lasting glory. Even the psalms connected with David often reveal a humble rather than a victorious David—humiliated rather than glorious. The psalmists experienced alienation and shame, and they longed for redemption, trusting in the Lord to vindicate them.

The Psalter illustrates the failures of Israel and of David’s dynasty. The best of the godly Israelites and kings were unable to bring the happiness and peace that Psalms 1 and 2 speak of (see also Ps 72). The psalms are thus God’s exhortation to each person to cultivate wisdom, to trust in him, to live by grace, and to have hope in the one who can bring blessings to a needy world.

The psalms prepare God’s people for the coming of Jesus Christ as the perfect human and ideal king, the descendant of David who has absolute integrity. Jesus and the apostles understood Jesus’ life and ministry in light of the psalms (see Matt 13:34-35; 21:16, 42; 23:39; John 2:17; 15:25; 19:24, 28, 36; Acts 2:22-35; 4:11; 13:32-38; Rom 15:3; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Eph 4:7-10; 1 Pet 2:7). Jesus entered the world of humans and lived out the patterns found in the psalms, including humiliation, suffering, death, vindication, and glory. He is the only human being who has completely pleased God (Ps 1). He is the Messiah and King (Ps 2) who has become our means of redemption, happiness, and peace.

An Exposition, with Practical Observations, of The Book of Psalms

We have now before us one of the choicest and most excellent parts of all the Old Testament; nay, so much is there in it of Christ and his gospel, as well as of God and his law, that it had been called the abstract, or summary, of both Testaments. The History of Israel, which we were long upon, let us to camps and council-boards, and there entertained and instructed us in the knowledge of God. The book of Job brought us into the schools, and treated us with profitable disputations concerning God and his providence. But this book brings us into the sanctuary, draws us off from converse with men, with the politicians, philosophers, or disputers of this world, and directs us into communion with God, by solacing and reposing our souls in him, lifting up and letting out our hearts towards him. Thus may we be in the mount with God; and we understand not our interests if we say not, It is good to be here. Let us consider,

I. The title of this book. It is called, 1. The Psalms; under that title it is referred to, Luk 24:44. The Hebrew calls it Tehillim, which properly signifies Psalms of praise, because many of them are such; but Psalms is a more general word, meaning all metrical compositions fitted to be sung, which may as well be historical, doctrinal, or supplicatory, as laudatory. Though singing be properly the voice of joy, yet the intention of songs is of a much greater latitude, to assist the memory, and both to express and to excite all the other affections as well as this of joy. The priests had a mournful muse as well as joyful ones; and the divine institution of singing psalms is thus largely intended; for we are directed not only to praise God, but to teach and admonish ourselves and one another in psalms, and hymns, and spiritual songs, Col 3:16. 2. It is called the Book of Psalms; so it is quoted by St. Peter, Act 1:20. It is a collection of psalms, of all the psalms that were divinely inspired, which, though composed at several times and upon several occasions, are here put together without any reference to or dependence upon one another; thus they were preserved from being scattered and lost, and were in so much greater readiness for the service of the church. See what a good master we serve, and what pleasantness there is in wisdom's ways, when we are not only commanded to sing at our work, and have cause enough given us to do so, but have words also put in our mouths and songs prepared to our hands.

II. The author of this book. It is, no doubt, derived originally from the blessed Spirit. They are spiritual songs, words which the Holy Ghost taught. The penman of most of them was David the son of Jesse, who is therefore called the sweet psalmist of Israel, Sa2 23:1. Some that have not his name in their titles yet are expressly ascribed to him elsewhere, as Psa 2:1-12 (Act 4:25) and Psa 96:1-13 and 105 (1 Chr. 16). One psalm is expressly said to be the prayer of Moses (Ps. 90); and that some of the psalms were penned by Asaph is intimated, Ch2 29:30, where they are said to praise the Lord in the words of David and Asaph, who is there called a seer or prophet. Some of the psalms seem to have been penned long after, as Psa 137:1-9, at the time of the captivity in Babylon; but the far greater part of them were certainly penned by David himself, whose genius lay towards poetry and music, and who was raised up, qualified, and animated, for the establishing of the ordinance of singing psalms in the church of God, as Moses and Aaron were, in their day, for the settling of the ordinances of sacrifice; theirs is superseded, but his remains, and will to the end of time, when it shall be swallowed up in the songs of eternity. Herein David was a type of Christ, who descended from him, not from Moses, because he came to take away sacrifice (the family of Moses was soon lost and extinct), but to establish and perpetuate joy and praise; for of the family of David in Christ there shall be no end.

III. The scope of it. It is manifestly intended, 1. To assist the exercises of natural religion, and to kindle in the souls of men those devout affections which we owe to God as our Creator, owner, ruler, and benefactor. The book of Job helps to prove our first principles of the divine perfections and providence; but this helps to improve them in prayers and praises, and professions of desire towards him, dependence on him, and an entire devotedness and resignation to him. Other parts of scripture show that God is infinitely above man, and his sovereign Lord; but this shows us that he may, notwithstanding, be conversed with by us sinful worms of the earth; and there are ways in which, if it be not our own fault, we may keep up communion with him in all the various conditions of human life. 2. To advance the excellencies of revealed religion, and in the most pleasing powerful manner to recommend it to the world. There is indeed little or nothing of the ceremonial law in all the book of Psalms. Though sacrifice and offering were yet to continue many ages, yet they are here represented as things which God did not desire (Psa 40:6, Psa 51:16), as things comparatively little, and which in time were to vanish away. But the word and law of God, those parts of it which are moral and of perpetual obligation are here all along magnified and made honourable, nowhere more. And Christ, the crown and centre of revealed religion, the foundation, corner, and top-stone, of that blessed building, is here clearly spoken of in type and prophecy, his sufferings and the glory that should follow, and the kingdom that he should set up in the world, in which God's covenant with David, concerning his kingdom, was to have its accomplishment. What a high value does this book put upon the word of God, his statutes and judgments, his covenant and the great and precious promises of it; and how does it recommend them to us as our guide and stay, and our heritage for ever!

IV. The use of it. All scripture, being given by inspiration of God, is profitable to convey divine light into our understandings; but this book is of singular use with that to convey divine life and power, and a holy warmth, into our affections. There is no one book of scripture that is more helpful to the devotions of the saints than this, and it has been so in all ages of the church, ever since it was written and the several parts of it were delivered to the chief musician for the service of the church. 1. It is of use to be sung. Further than David's psalms we may go, but we need not, for hymns and spiritual songs. What the rules of the Hebrew metre were even the learned are not certain. But these psalms ought to be rendered according to the metre of every language, at least so as that they may be sung for the edification of the church. And methinks it is a great comfort to us, when we are singing David's psalms, that we are offering the very same praises to God that were offered to him in the days of David and the other godly kings of Judah. So rich, so well made, are these divine poems, that they can never be exhausted, can never be worn thread-bare. 2. It is of use to be read and opened by the ministers of Christ, as containing great and excellent truths, and rules concerning good and evil. Our Lord Jesus expounded the psalms to his disciples, the gospel psalms, and opened their understandings (for he had the key of David) to understand them, Luk 24:44. 3. It is of use to be read and meditated upon by all good people. It is a full fountain, out of which we may all be drawing water with joy. (1.) The Psalmist's experiences are of great use for our direction, caution, and encouragement. In telling us, as he often does, what passed between God and his soul, he lets us know what we may expect from God, and what he will expect, and require, and graciously accept, from us. David was a man after God's own heart, and therefore those who find themselves in some measure according to his heart have reason to hope that they are renewed by the grace of God, after the image of God, and many have much comfort in the testimony of their consciences for them that they can heartily say Amen to David's prayers and praises. (2.) Even the Psalmist's expressions too are of great use; and by them the Spirit helps our praying infirmities, because we know not what to pray for as we ought. In all our approaches to God, as well as in our first returns to God, we are directed to take with us words (Hos 14:2), these word, words which the Holy Ghost teaches. If we make David's psalms familiar to us, as we ought to do, whatever errand we have at the throne of grace, by way of confession, petition, or thanksgiving, we may thence be assisted in the delivery of it; whatever devout affection is working in us, holy desire or hope, sorrow or joy, we may there find apt words wherewith to clothe it, sound speech which cannot be condemned. It will be good to collect the most proper and lively expressions of devotion which we find here, and to methodize them, and reduce them to the several heads of prayer, that they may be the more ready to us. Or we may take sometimes one choice psalm and sometimes another, and pray it over, that is, enlarge upon each verse in our own thoughts, and offer up our meditations to God as they arise from the expressions we find there. The learned Dr. Hammond, in his preface to his paraphrase on the Psalms (sect. 29), says, "That going over a few psalms with these interpunctions of mental devotion, suggested, animated, and maintained, by the native life and vigour which is in the psalms, is much to be preferred before the saying over the whole Psalter, since nothing is more fit to be averted in religious offices than their degenerating into heartless dispirited recitations." If, as St. Austin advises, we form our spirit by the affection of the psalm, we may then be sure of acceptance with God in using the language of it. Nor is it only our devotion, and the affections of our mind, that the book of Psalms assists, teaching us how to offer praise so as to glorify God, but, it is also a directory to the actions of our lives, and teaches us how to order our conversation aright, so as that, in the end, we may see the salvation of God, Psa 50:23. The Psalms were thus serviceable to the Old Testament church, but to us Christians they may be of more use than they could be to those who lived before the coming of Christ; for, as Moses's sacrifices, so David's songs, are expounded and made more intelligible by the gospel of Christ, which lets us within the veil; so that if to David's prayers and praises we all St. Paul's prayers in his epistles, and the new songs in the Revelation, we shall be thoroughly furnished for this good work; for the scripture, perfected, makes the man of God perfect.

As to the division of this book, we need not be solicitous; there is no connexion (or very seldom) between one psalm and another, nor any reason discernable for the placing of them in the order wherein we here find them; but it seems to be ancient, for that which is now the second psalm was so in the apostles' time, Act 13:33. The vulgar Latin joins the 9th and 10th together; all popish authors quote by that, so that, thenceforward, throughout the book, their number is one short of ours; our 11 is their 10, our 119 is their 118. But they divide the 147th into two, and so make up the number of 150. Some have endeavoured to reduce the psalms to proper heads, according to the matter of them, but there is often such a variety of matter in one and the same psalm that this cannot be done with any certainty. But the seven penitential Psalms have been in a particular manner singled out by the devotions of many. They are reckoned to be Psa 6:1-10, Psa 32:1-11, 38, 51,102, Psa 130:1-8, and Psa 143:1-12. The Psalms were divided into five books, each concluding with Amen, Amen, or Hallelujah; the first ending with Psa 41:1-13, the second with Ps. 72, the third with Ps. 89, the fourth with Ps. 106, the fifth with Psa 150:1-6. Others divide them into three fifties; others into sixty parts, two for every day of the month, one for the morning, the other for the evening. Let good Christians divide them for themselves, so as may best increase their acquaintance with them, that they may have them at hand upon all occasions and may sing them in the spirit and with the understanding.

The Hebrew title of this book is Tehilim ("praises" or "hymns"), for a leading feature in its contents is praise, though the word occurs in the title of only one Psalm (the hundred forty-fifth). The Greek title (in the Septuagint, a translation made two hundred years before Christ) is psalmoi, whence our word "Psalms." This corresponds to the Hebrew word mizmoi by which sixty-five Psalms are designated in their inscriptions, and which the Syriac, a language like the Hebrew, uses for the whole book. It means, as does also the Greek name, an ode, or song, whose singing is accompanied by an instrument, particularly the harp (compare Ch1 16:4-8; Ch2 5:12-13). To some Psalms, the Hebrew word (shir) "a song," is prefixed. Paul seems to allude to all these terms in Eph 5:19, "singing . . . in psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs."

TITLES.—To more than a hundred Psalms are prefixed inscriptions, which give one or more (and in one case, [Psalm 60], all) of these particulars: the direction to the musician, the name of the author or the instrument, the style of the music or of the poetry, the subject or occasion. The authority of these inscriptions has been disputed by some writers. They say that the earliest translators, as the Greek and Syriac, evince a disregard for their authority, by variations from a proper translation of some, altering others, and, in several instances, supplying titles to Psalms which, in Hebrew, had none. It is also alleged that the subject of a Psalm, as given in the title, is often inconsistent with its contents. But those translators have also varied from a right translation of many passages in the Bible, which all agree to be of good authority; and the alleged inconsistency may be shown, on more accurate investigation, not to exist. The admitted antiquity of these inscriptions, on the other hand, and even their obscurity, raise a presumption in their favor, while such prefaces to a composition accord with the usages of that age and part of the world (compare Isa 38:9).

"The Chief Musician" was the superintendent of the music (compare "to oversee," Ch1 15:21, Margin). "To" prefixed to this, means, "pertaining to" in his official character. This inscription is found in fifty-three Psalms and is attached to Habakkuk's prayer (Hab. 3:1-19). The same Hebrew preposition is prefixed to the name of the author and translated "of," as "a Psalm of David," "of Asaph," except that to "the sons of Korah," it is translated "for," which is evidently wrong, as the usual direction, "to the chief musician," is given, and no other authorship intimated. On the apparent exception to this last remark, see below, and see on Psa 88:1, title. The explanations of other particulars in the titles will be given as they occur.

AUTHORS.—This book is often called "The Psalms of David," he being the only author mentioned in the New Testament (Luk 20:42) and his name appearing in more titles than that of any other writer. Besides about one-half of the Psalms in which it thus appears, Psalms 2 and 95 are ascribed to him (Act 4:25 and Heb 4:7). He was probably the author of many others which appear without a name. He used great efforts to beautify the worship of the sanctuary. Among the two hundred eighty-eight Levites he appointed for singing and performing instrumental music, we find mentioned the "sons of Korah" (Ch1 9:19); including Heman (Ch1 6:33-38); and also Asaph (Ch1 6:39-44); and Ethan (Ch1 15:17-19). God was doubtless pleased to endow these men with the inspiration of His Spirit, so that they used those poetic talents which their connection with the kindred art of music had led them to cultivate, in the production of compositions like those of their king and patron. To Asaph are ascribed twelve Psalms; to the sons of Korah, eleven, including the eighty-eighth, which is also ascribed to Heman, that being the only instance in which the name of the "son" (or descendant) is mentioned; and to Ethan, one. Solomon's name appears before the seventy-second and hundred twenty-seventh; and that of Moses before the ninetieth. Special questions respecting authorship will be explained as they arise.

CONTENTS.—As the book contains one hundred fifty independent compositions, it is not susceptible of any logical analysis. The Jews having divided it into five books, corresponding to the Five Books of Moses (First, Psalms 1-42; Second, Psalms 43-72; Third, Psalms 73-89; Fourth, Psalms 90-106; Fifth, Psalms 107-150), many attempts have been made to discover, in this division, some critical or practical value, but in vain. Sundry efforts have been made to classify the Psalms by subject. Angus' Bible Hand Book is perhaps the most useful, and is appended.

Still the Psalms have a form and character peculiar to themselves; and with individual diversities of style and subject, they all assimilate to that form, and together constitute a consistent system of moral truth. They are all poetical, and of that peculiar parallelism (see Introduction to the Poetical Books,) which distinguished Hebrew poetry. They are all lyrical, or songs adapted to musical instruments, and all religious lyrics, or such as were designed to be used in the sanctuary worship.

The distinguishing feature of the Psalms is their devotional character. Whether their matter be didactic, historical, prophetical, or practical, it is made the ground or subject of prayer, or praise, or both. The doctrines of theology and precepts of pure morality are here inculcated. God's nature, attributes, perfections, and works of creation, providence, and grace, are unfolded. In the sublimest conceptions of the most exalted verse, His glorious supremacy over the principalities of heaven, earth, and hell, and His holy, wise, and powerful control of all material and immaterial agencies, are celebrated. The great covenant of grace resting on the fundamental promise of a Redeemer, both alike the provisions of God's exhaustless mercy, is set forth in respect of the doctrines of regeneration by the Spirit, forgiveness of sins, repentance toward God, and faith toward Jesus Christ, while its glorious results, involving the salvation of men "from the ends of the earth" [Act 13:47], are proclaimed in believing, prophetic prayer and thankful praise. The personal history of the authors, and especially David's in its spiritual aspects, is that of God's people generally. Christian biography is edifying only as it is truth illustrated in experience, such as God's Word and Spirit produce. It may be factitious in origin and of doubtful authenticity. But here the experience of the truly pious is detailed, under divine influence, and "in words which the Holy Ghost" taught [Co1 2:13]. The whole inner life of the pious man is laid open, and Christians of all ages have here the temptations, conflicts, perplexities, doubts, fears, penitent moanings, and overwhelming griefs on the one hand, and the joy and hope of pardoning mercy, the victory over the seductions of false-hearted flatterers, and deliverance from the power of Satan on the other, with which to compare their own spiritual exercises. Here, too, are the fruits of that sovereign mercy, so often sought in earnest prayer, and when found, so often sung in rapturous joy, exhibited by patience in adversity, moderation in prosperity, zeal for God's glory, love for man, justice to the oppressed, holy contempt for the proud, magnanimity towards enemies, faithfulness towards friends, delight in the prosperity of Zion, and believing prayer for her enlargement and perpetuity.

The historical summaries of the Psalms are richly instructive. God's choice of the patriarchs, the sufferings of the Israelites in Egypt, their exodus, temptations of God, rebellions and calamities in the wilderness, settlement in Canaan, backslidings and reformations, furnish illustrations of God's providential government of His people, individually and collectively, tending to exalt His adorable grace and abase human pride. But the promises and prophecies connected with these summaries, and elsewhere presented in the Psalms, have a far wider reach, exhibiting the relations of the book to the great theme of promise and prophecy:

THE MESSIAH AND HIS KINGDOM.—David was God's chosen servant to rule His people, as the head at once of the State and the Church, the lineal ancestor, "according to the flesh" [Act 2:30; Rom 1:3], of His adorable Son, and His type, in His official relations, both in suffering and in triumph. Generally, David's trials by the ungodly depicted the trials of Christ, and his final success the success of Christ's kingdom. Typically, he uses language describing his feelings, which only finds its full meaning in the feelings of Christ. As such it is quoted and applied in the New Testament. And further, in view of the great promise (Sa2 7:12-16) to him and his seed, to which such frequent reference is made in the Psalms, David was inspired to know, that though his earthly kingdom should perish, his spiritual would ever endure, in the power, beneficence, and glory of Christ's. In repeating and amplifying that promise, he speaks not only as a type, but "being a prophet, and knowing that God had sworn with an oath to him, that of the fruit of his loins, according to the flesh, he would raise up Christ to sit on his throne," he "foretold the sufferings of Christ and the glory that should follow. His incarnation, humiliating sorrows, persecution, and cruel death are disclosed in the plaintive cries of a despairing sufferer; and His resurrection and ascension, His eternal priesthood, His royal dignity, His prophetical office, the purchase and bestowal of the gifts of the Spirit, the conversion of the nations, the establishment, increase, and perpetuity of the Church, the end of time, and the blessedness of the righteous who acknowledge, and the ruin of the wicked who reject this King in Zion, are predicted in the language of assured confidence and joy." While these great themes have supplied the people of God with a popular theology and a guide in religious experience and Christian morality, clothed in the language of devotion, they have provided an inspired liturgy in which the pious, of all creeds and sects, have, for nearly three thousand years, poured out their prayers and praises. The pious Jew, before the coming of Christ, mourned over the adversity, or celebrated the future glories, of Zion, in the words of her ancient king. Our Saviour, with His disciples, sang one of these hymns on the night on which He was betrayed [Mat 26:30]; He took from one the words in which He uttered the dreadful sorrows of His soul [Mat 27:46], and died with those of another on His lips [Luk 23:46]. Paul and Silas in the dungeon [Act 16:25], primitive Christians in their covert places of worship, or the costly churches of a later day, and the scattered and feeble Christian flocks in the prevalence of darkness and error through the Middle Ages, fed their faith and warmed their love with these consoling songs. Now, throughout the Christian world, in untold forms of version, paraphrase, and imitation, by Papists and Protestants, Prelatists and Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists, Methodists—men of all lands and all creeds, in public and private worship, God is still adored in the sentiments expressed in these venerable Psalms. From the tone of sorrow and suffering which pervade their earlier portions we are gradually borne on amid alternate conflicts and triumphs, mournful complaints and awakening confidence; as we approach the close the tones of sorrow grow feebler, and those of praise wax louder and stronger—till, in the exulting strains of the last Psalm, the chorus of earth mingles with the hallelujahs of the multitude, which no man can number, in the sanctuary above.

Next: Psalms Chapter 1